Lorica Segmentata

Den romerske Lorica Segmentata var på alle måder en banebrydende opfindelse. Lorica Segmentata afløste i store træk ringbrynjen (Lorica Hamata) for den professionelle Legionær, selvom begge rutningstyper fortsat blev brugt. De tidligste eksemplarer af Lorica Segmentata kendes fra Augustus tid. Segmentata var på alle måder genial. Den var nemmere og billigere at fremstille og den beskyttede bedre mod pile, spyd og slag end en ringbrynje, da pladerne - der var fremstillet af “blødt” pladejern - kunne absorbere stød og hug fra sværd og pile, hvor ringbrynjen ikke gav nogen beskyttelse.
Lorica Segmentata blev brugt frem til slutningen af 2 århundrede. Hvor recession i Romerriget generelt og i hæren i særdeleshed, gjorde at ringbrynjen igen vandt indpas.

En lignende pladebrynje blev ikke siden brugt, før et godt stykke inde i middelalderen.

The Roman Lorica Segmentata was in all perspectives a Poineering Invention. Lorica Segmentata relieved in large scale the Lorica Hamata – the mail armour – in the Standing Legions. But both types kept in use at the same time. The earliest editions of Lorica Segmentata is from the Augustan period.
Lorica Segmentata was in every way brilliant. It was easy and cheap to manufacture and gave much better protection againt spears, arrows and swordcuts than a mail armour.
Lorica Segmentata was made of a “soft” ironplate, wich could absorb hits and blows were the mail gave no protection.
Lorica Segmentata was used until the end of the 2. Century. Where the general Resession in the Empire and especially in the Army, gave way for the return of mail armour.

A similar Armour like the Lorica Segmentata did not come in use before the High Middleages.

Corbrigde A Segmentata fra 1. Århundrede (Ca. Vespasian). Pladerne holdes sammen med læderremme og er små og meget mobile.

Corbrigde A Segmentata . from the 1. Century. (Ca. Vespasian) The plates are small and very mobile, and fitted with leatherstraps.

Newstead Segmentata fra 2. Århundrede (Ca. Marcus Aurelius). Pladerne er blevet større og enklere, og der er færre af dem. De holdes nu sammen af beslag og metalkroge, da man havde erfaret af rustningerne faldt fra hinanden hvis læderremmene blev hugget over.

Newstead Segmentata from the 2. Century (Ca. Marcus Aurelius). The plates are big and fewer.
They are now attached with metal hooks and rings, because of the experience of the leathersstraps being cut in battle, and so opening the Lorica.

Cassis Italic D

My Imperial Italic D is handmade from scratch. From 1,1 mm. Ironplate

and a variety of brass plates and rods.

Handmade Imperial italic D from the back

From the buttom, showing the felt liner

Imperial Italic D from the top

Denmark and The Roman Empire

The “Roman Ironage” in Denmark, the years 0 – 400 AD, has traditionally been largely overshadowed by the Viking period from 900 – 1200 AD. And to many danes the “Roman Ironage” is still a dark chapter in the Danish history.

But in recent years a new History of this period is being written. And a special breakthrough for the public in Denmark, was the exhibition “The Triumph of Victory” at the National Museum in Copenhagen in 2003. A special exhibition on the Danish-Roman relationships and the many Danish Bog-finds from this period.
This event, combined with many new Danish Ironage themeparks, also established through recent years, have made way for a brand new view on the South Scandinavian relations to the Roman Empire.

It would be taking it to far in this article, to go through the many finds in Denmark from this period. But its worth mentioning that many of the finds, especially from the first and second Century, are gravefinds and finds of Roman goods that clearly have been cherished by their owners. They are not prizes of war, but goods that have been traded and perhaps given to their owners. Things that appearantly show, that the danish tribes in this age, had a friendly and close relationship with Rome. A friendship wich counted trading and a wide support from the tribes to the Romans. A support that also encounted danish tribesmen participating in the Roman wars against other Germanic tribes, probably as Auxillia – supporting troops – or, in the later periods, as regular soldiers in the Roman Army.

Augustus and Tiberius
On “Monumentum Acyranum”, Augustus own descriptions of his deeds, it is told that in the year 5 AD he sent Tiberius on a major clearing expedition to the most northern parts of Germania. With a fleet from the Rhine and possibly a supporting land-army he advanced to the Cimbrian Peninsula, and made peace agreements with the local tribes there.
This first official contact with the “danes*”, since the Cimbrian and Teutonian migrations in 150 BC shows, that there appearantly was an active interest in Rome in an annexation of the southern parts of Scandinavia into the Roman Empire.
But this interest was brutally stopped in year 9 AD, when the Roman General Quintillius Publius Varus was beaten in a Germanic ambush in Teutoburgerwald at Kalkriese in Germany. At this battle 3 Roman Legions were anihilated; Approx. 30.000 men.

The mission for Varus was to prepare the advance of the Imperial border to the River Elb. But after this major loss, the Romans resignated and gave up any further offensives beyond the Rhine, and the northern border of the Empire stayed at the Rhine.

*(The names “Danes” and “Denmark” first appeared in 800 AD, before that a multitude of tribal names was used for the citizens of the Cimbrian Peninsula and the Danish Isles. Among these tribes were Teutones and Cimbrians, names that still is found in present day places like “Thy” (Teuto) and “Himmerland” (Cimberland), both locations in Jutland).

Trading and Alliances
Though the plans for the northern germanic territories were abandoned by the Romans,
it seems that a broad contact were established between the Romans and the tribes of Southern Scandinavia. Especially famous is the trading expeditions to the Baltic, for Amber to Emperor Neros palace after the burning of Rome in 64. This palace were later demolished by Vespasian, and he and his sons Titus and Domitian erected the Colloseum at its place.
The finds in Denmark from this period is really interesting. Especially the great gravefinds from Himlingoje on Southern Zealand, Gudme on Funen and the rich Hoby graves from Lolland. In this large find, a wide range of Roman officers equipment were found. And especially two Silver Cups from Hoby are of great interest.
Not only because of their superb quality, but also because of the name “Silius” wich is ingraved in the buttom of the Cups.
This “Silius” appears to be the Roman Commander who were stationed with the Rhine Army in the years 14 – 21, with the purpose to find the locations for the Varus disaster and conduct punitive expeditions in to the Elb-german territories.
If Silius is the former owner of the Hoby Cups, the idea that danish tribes were hired as Auxilia to the Romans seems obvious. Wich also explains the many other finds of Roman military equipment in Denmark from this period. For instance a beautyful 1st Century Pugio found in a grave near Horsens in Jutland.

Together with this Pugio, was also a Roman style Hamata and a Roman military Balteus and other personal equipment.
A find that appearantly show the presence of Roman military activities in Denmark, or “danes” that served with the Roman Army.


Finds all over Southern Scandinavia, of especially Fibulas, indicates that a small “Empire” were present here in the first and second Century. With a “Himlingoje Dynasty” as rulers. This “Dynasty” not only traded with Rome, but appearantly also lived a very “Roman” style of life.
If there were such an “Empire”, it is obvious that the Romans could benefit from this, and seek alliances with this regime. Alliances that today, is discribed as Denmark beeing a “Client State” of Rome. A supportive territory for the Romans where they traded and recruited Auxillia and soldiers for the wars down South.

Marcus Aurelius and the Marcomannic wars
As Client States the tribes north of the Danube had traditionally been a very peaceful territory for the Romans. But in the 150’s this area was destabilized by a range of migrations from the north, pressing the Marcomanians, the Quades and the Sarmatians downwards against the Roman Danube border in the present Czech Republic.
Regular wars between some of these tribes and the Romans broke out in the year 166 AD, in the fifth year of Marcus Aurelius as Emperor. And they didn’t end before 180, in the time of Commodus. (The background for the movie “Gladiator”).

Today there is no doubt, that also South Scandinavians participated in these wars. Gravefinds from Müsov in Mähren indicate this, with the finds of jewelry and fibulas that are obvious Scandinavian. And in Himlingoje two Roman silvercups, showing Roman soldiers with “Ringgrib” swords, were found. These Roman Gladii had their prime in the Marcomanian Wars. Also the find of a gold Kolb Torch in Himlingoje is evidence of a “danish” participation. The Kolb Torch were a sign of dignity among the Sarmatians. The Sarmatians participated in the wars on the Roman side. Wich indicates, that also the “danish contingents” were on the Roman side.

That the Roman – South Scandinavian relationsship were well established and continiued on to the 4-5 century is indicated by the many finds from this period. Most of all by the great Bog-finds from 300 – 500 AD. Among these is the Illerup finds and the Thorsbjerg finds, wich counts the largest finds of Roman weapons in the World.
These weapons was not in use by the Romans themselves, but blades produced in Roman Fabricas and purchased by the Scandinavians in the Roman Empire.
That Roman Merchants sailed the waters of South Scandinavia for several centuries are clear. Worth mentioning are the Egyptian Geografer Klaudios Ptolemaios travel descriptions from the 2. Century, wich describes the naval route from The Rhine around Jutland and through the Danish sea of Isles to the coast of Poland. A route, also described by many other Roman Scribes, f.ist. Tacitus. A route appearantly commonly used by the Romans.
It appears, by the writings of Marcus Aurelius, that it was his plan to establish two new provinces north of the Danube. The provinces Marcomannia and Sarmatia. And thus, push the border of the Roman Empire to the Baltic.
In such an enterprise, the Romans would have to have good and loyal “Clients”
In South Scandinavia and the ”danish territories”. And it now appears that they had just that.

Pictures: 1. The Hoby Cups, from The National Museum, Copenhagen. 2. The Hedegaard Pugio and its reconstruction, from Horsens Museum. 3. The Hedegaard Hamata (mail armour) from Horsens Museum.

Danmark og Romerriget

Romersk jernalder i Danmark, der traditionelt tæller årene 0 – 400, har i årtier ligget i skyggen af vikingetidens Danmark. Og for de fleste er denne tid stadig et mørkt og ubeskrevet kapitel.
Dette kan skyldes flere årsager. Dels, at verdenshistorien blev skrevet langt fra vore breddegrader - i Rom og Mellemøsten - og dels at de fund der er gjort fra denne tid, ikke hidtil har fået tildelt de forskningsmæssige ressourcer der skulle til, for at give en fyldestgørende beskrivelse af, særligt de politiske og internationale relationer, som datidens danskere havde til deres omverden og den store nabo mod syd, Romerriget.

Men i de seneste år er en ny Danmarkshistorie ved at se dagens lys. Og et særligt gennembrud for denne historie var Nationalmuseets store udstilling “Sejrens Triumf” i 2003. Arbejdet bag denne udstilling og de mange nye jernalderparker der er dukket op i landet, har givet grobund for, at en helt ny opfattelse af Danmarks rolle i romertiden er ved at slå rod.

Det ville være at gå for vidt i denne artikel, at gennemgå de mange fund der er gjort i Danmark fra denne tid. Men det der er kendetegnende ved fundende i Danmark, særligt fra 1-3 århundrede er, at de tilsynelandende i overvejende grad er fund af ejendom der har været skattet og vellidt af deres ejermænd. De er ikke kun krigsbytte, de er ikke kun erobringer, men har også været handelsvarer og gaver. Ting der peger mod, at der i Danmark var stammer der havde et nært venskab med Rom. Et venskab der udmøntede sig i samhandel og samarbejde. Særligt i Romernes krige mod de germanerstammer der lå syd for Danmark, ned mod Rhinen og det Romerske Riges nordgrænse.


Augustus og Tiberius
På Monumentum Ancyranum, der er kejser Augustus egen beskrivelse af sine gerninger, fortælles, at han i år 5 sendte sin adoptivsøn Tiberius på en opklarings ekspedition til de nordligste dele af Germanien;

“Min flåde sejlede mod øst over oceanet fra Rhinens munding indtil kimbrernes land, hvortil ingen romer før var nået, hverken til lands eller til vands, og kimbrerne, charyderne, semnonerne og de øvrige germanske folk I samme område bad gennem gesandter mig og romerfolket om venskab.”

Denne første officielle kontakt med de daværende danskere, siden Kimbrer- og Teutonertoget 150 fvt., indikerer, at der tilsyneladende var en aktiv interesse fra Roms side i også at indlemme Sydskandinavien i det romerske rige.

Men denne interesse stoppede brat i år 9, da den romerske general Quintillius Publius Varus blev slået i et germansk baghold i Teutoburgerskovene ved Kalkriese i Nordtyskland. Ved dette slag, blev hele 3 romerske legioner (17, 18, 19) fuldstændigt udslettet; et tab på næsten 30.000 mand; 1/10 af den samlede romerske hær.
Disse legioner blev aldrig genetableret, og tilbage stod Augustus berømte ord; “Quintili Vare, legiones redde”. “Quintillius Varus, giv mig mine legioner tilbage!”

Efter dette slag, hvor målet tilsyneladende havde været at skubbe den romerske nordgrænse frem til Elben, opgav romerne yderligere fremstød i denne del af Europa. Og med en vis resignation blev Rhinen fastlåst som Romerrigets grænse til det vilde Germanien mod nord.


Handel og Alliance
Men selvom det danske område dermed blev opgivet af Romerne, synes en ivrig kontakt herefter dog at opstå med Sydskandinavien. Kendt er Neros ekspeditioner til Østersøen efter det rav der skulle dekorere hans nybyggede palads i Rom, efter den store brand i år 64. Dette palads lå hvor kejser Vespasian og hans sønner Titus og Domitian, senere byggede Colloseum.
Og fundene i Danmark fra denne tid er også virkeligt interessante. Særligt de store gravfund fra Himlingøje på Sydsjælland, Gudme på Sydfyn og de rige Hoby fund fra Lolland, med bl.a. de smukke romerske sølvbægre og romersk officersudstyr der indikerer, at her regerede en række ukendte fyrster området i romertiden. Fyrster der ikke bare støttede og handlede med Rom, men også, tilsyneladende havde optaget den romerske livsstil.
Og sølvbægrerne fra Hoby er ikke blot et yderst interessant fund fordi de er i så høj en kvalitet, men også fordi de i bunden har indridset navnet “Silius”.
Denne “Silius” er formentlig den kommandant der i år 14 – 21 var udstationeret ved rhinhæren med den opgave at finde stedet for Varus nederlag, og foretage straffeekspeditioner ind i det Elbgermanske område.
Er Silius bægrernes tidligere ejermand er tanken nærliggende, at de danske stammer i denne sammenhæng er blevet hyret som Auxillia, hjælpetropper, til de romerske legioner ved Rhinen. Hvilket også måske forklarer de mange andre fund der er gjort i Danmark fra denne tid. Bl.a. en meget smuk Pugio, en romersk soldaterdaggert, der sammen med andet personligt romersk militært udstyr, er fundet ved Hedegård i nærheden af Horsens.
Et fund der understreger romersk militær aktivitet i Danmark, eller måske danskere i romersk militær tjeneste.

Fund i hele sydskandinavien af bl.a. fibulaer antyder i øvrigt, at der måske var tale om et regulært “imperium”, med “Himlingøjedynastiet” som centrum.
Og har et sådan regime eksisteret på dette tidspunkt, har det været oplagt for Romerne at søge alliancer med dette regime. En alliance der i dag beskrives som, at Danmark har været en form for “Klientstat” for Rom. Altså en stødpudestat, hvor man havde gensidige handelsforbindelser, og hvorfra Romerne rekrutterede soldater til krigene i syd.


Marcus Aurelius og Markomannerkrigene
Som klientstater havde stammeområderne nord for Donau traditionelt været et fredeligt område for Romerne. Men I 150erne destabiliseres dette område af en række folkevandringer der pressede de eksisterende stammer, Markomannerne, Quaderne og Sarmaterne, ned mod den romerske Donaugrænse i det nuværende Tjekkiet og Slovakiet.
Regulær krig mellem disse stammer og Romerne bryder derfor ud i år 166, i kejser Marcus Aurelius 5 regerings år. Og de afsluttedes først i år 180 under hans efterfølger Commodus regering. (Det er denne krig der danner baggrund for filmen “Gladiator”).

At der også har været sydskandinaviske deltagere i disse krige antyder gravfund fra bl.a. Musow i Mähren. I en af gravene har man bl.a. fundet to kapselformede hængesmykker af guld der utvetydigt er skandinaviske. Også fundene i Himlingøje fra denne tid antyder skandinavisk deltagelse i krigene. To sølvpokaler fundet her, viser romerske soldater med såkaldte ringgrebssværd, der netop havde sin storhedstid i denne periode. Også fundet af en kolbearmring, er et overbevisende argument for deltagelsen af danskere i disse krige. Kolbearmringen var et værdighedstegn for det Sarmatiske aristokrati. Sarmaterne deltog i krigene på Romersk side, og det træder godt i spænd med, at også de “Danske” kontingenter kæmpede i krigene på romersk side.

At det romersk - sydskandinaviske forhold var godt etableret og forsatte helt frem til det 4 århundrede indikeres af en lang række fund fra disse tider. Og det er værd at nævne den egyptiske geograf Klaudios Ptolemaios rejsebeskrivelse fra 2 århundrede der beskriver søvejen fra Rhinen rundt om Jylland, gennem det danske øhav og til den Polske kyst.
En rute der, sammen med fundende, ligner en fastlagt og ivrigt benyttet sejlrute for romerne.
Af Marcus Aurelius egne skriverier antydes, at det var kejserens plan at etablere to nye provinser nord for Donaugrænsen, provinserne Marcomannia og Sarmatia.
Disse nye provinser skulle skyde romerrigets nordgrænse helt frem til Østersøen.
Ved en sådan plan var det også oplagt, at have et godt forhold til allierede “klienter” på de danske øer.

Pictures: 1. Hedegaard Pugio, reconstructed Scabbard.

2: Hedegaard Balteus. Both Horsens Museum